Αγγλικά - Αρχάριοι (Β Γυμνασίου): Ηλεκτρονικό Βιβλίο

GRAMMAR

UNIT 1

Simple Present

FORM

+ I, you, we, they He, she, it		like likes	milk.
- I, you, we, they He, she, it	do no does not	like
? Do Does	I, you, we, they he, she, it	like	milk?

SPELLING RULES
For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it)

We add s to the main verb work+s = he works

Exceptions

We add es in verbs ending in sh, ch, ss, o, x wash + es = he washes

We add ies in verbs ending in consonant + y study + ies = he studies

Examples of vowels: a, e, o, i, u
Examples of consonants: b, c, d, f, g, etc.

USE
We use the simple present tense when:
• something happens regularly
• something is true in general

We use an ADVERB OF FREQUENCY like
always, usually, often, sometimes to say
how often something happens.
It comes before the verb in the Present
Simple.
When we have the verb ‘to be’ we put the
adverb after it.
E.g. We always have maths on Monday.
Do you often play football at school?
My brother is always early for school.

EXAMPLES
I live in Patras.
The Moon goes round the Earth.
John's father drives a taxi. He does not drive a bus.
My sister and I do not watch TV after 10.00 at night.
Do you always play football on Saturdays?

Appendix IV

Wh… questions / How … questions with Simple Present

EXAMPLES

What	do you / they does he / she / it	have	for breakfast?
What time		go	to school?
Where		spend	holidays?
When		come home	from school?
Who		play	tennis with?
How often		meet	friends?

Present Continuous

FORM

+	I am		speaking	to you.
	You are		reading	this.
-	She is	not	staying	in London.
	We are	not	playing	football.
?	Is he		watching	TV?
	Are they		waiting	for John?

SPELLING RULES

We add -ing to the main verb: work + ing = working

Exceptions

a. If the main verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant, we double the
last letter: stop + p + ing = stopping / cut+ t+ ing = cutting

b. If the main verb ends in ie, we change the ie to y: die = d~~iey~~ + ing = dying

c. If the main verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the e: come + ing = coming

USE
We use the present continuous tense to talk about:
a. an action happening exactly now
b. an action happening around now

EXAMPLES
Look! The bus is coming!
Are you learning French or English?
We are not having breakfast at the moment.

Grammar

GRAMMAR

UNIT 2

Simple Past

FORM

+	I			worked	very hard.
	You			went	to school.
-	He / She	did	not	go	with me.
	We	did	not	work	yesterday.
?	Did	you		go	to London?
		they		work	at home?

USE

We use the simple past tense to talk about an action, a situation or an event, short or
long, that
• happened in the past
• is completely finished
• we say (or understand) the time and/or place it happened

EXAMPLES

I lived in that house when I was younger.
He didn't like the movie.
What did you eat for dinner?
John rode his bike to school on Monday.
Mary did not go to school yesterday.

PAY ATTENTION TO THE IRREGULAR VERBS

Appendix IV

UNIT 3

Comparisons of adjectives and adverbs

FORM

	POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
SHORT ADJECTIVES	strong big ugly	…-er than	the …-est of/in
SHORT ADJECTIVES	strong big ugly	stronger than bigger than uglier than	the strongest of/in the biggest of/in the ugliest of/in
LONG ADJECTIVES	horrible	more … than	the most … of/in
LONG ADJECTIVES	horrible	more horrible than	the most horrible of/in

USE

In the Comparative form we add -er than in short adjectives and more + adjective + than
in long adjectives.
In the Superlative form we add the -est in short adjectives and the most + adjective
in long adjectives.

Irregular adjectives

Adjective	Comparative	Superlative
good	better than	the best of/in
bad	worse than	the worst of/in
far	farther/further than	the farthest/furthest of/in
much/many	more than	the most of/in
little	less than	the least of/in

Comparisons of adjectives with as...as and not so ... as

EXAMPLES

The night	is	as	dark	as	hell.
noun or pronoun	positive verb	as	adjective	as	noun or pronoun
Our house	is not	as / so	luxurious	as	a hotel.
noun or pronoun	negative verb	as / so	adjective	as	noun or pronoun

Grammar

GRAMMAR

Adverbs

FORM
To form a regular adverb we add -ly / -ily to an adjective

ADJECTIVE	ADVERB
quiet	quietly
happy	happily
EXCEPTIONS
fast	fast
hard	hard
good	well

EXAMPLES

The children are quiet. They are playing quietly.
That is a happy boy. He is singing happily.
That is a fast horse. It runs fast.
This exercise is hard. Tom is working hard on this exercise.
Jim is a good football player. He plays football well.

USE

We use adverbs when we want to answer the question HOW.

	ADVERB	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
SHORT ADVERBS	soon early	sooner earlier	the soonest the earliest
LONG ADVERBS	carefully	more carefully	the most carefully

	ADVERB	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
IRREGULAR FORMS	well badly little many / much	better worse less more	the best the worst the least the most

Appendix IV

UNIT 4

Modal verbs: can, may, should

FORM

+	I you he she we they	can may should	ride	this bike.
-	I you he she we they	cannot / can't may not should not / shouldn't	ride	this bike.
?	Can May Should	I / you he / she we / they	ride	this bike?

USE

CAN: Possibility / Ability

We use can to talk about what is possible or what we are able or free to do:

Examples
She can fly a plane.
John can speak Spanish.
I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.)
Can you hear me?

CAN, MAY: Permission

We sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something:

Examples
Can I leave early today?
May I leave early today?

The use of CAN for permission is informal.

SHOULD: Advice

We sometimes use should to give advice to someone:

Examples
You should be brave and well trained if you want to be a lifeguard.

Grammar

GRAMMAR

Simple Future

FORM

+	I You We She	will		open	the door.
				finish	before me.
-		will	not	be	at school tomorrow.
				leave	yet.
?	Will	you they		arrive	on time?
				want	dinner?

For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we contract with won't, like this:

I will not	I won't
you will not	you won't
he/she/it will not	he/she/it won't
we will not	we won't
they will not	they won't

USE
We use the Simple Future tense to show prediction, offer, promise, warning, decision on the spot and request.

EXAMPLES

It will rain tomorrow. (prediction)
I'll bring it right away! (offer)
I'll fix your car tomorrow. (promise)
If you don't follow my advice, you won't get well. (warning)
Will you bring a bottle of water? (request)
There is no bread left. I'll go and buy some! (decision on the spot)

Note that when we have a plan or intention to do something in the future, we usually use other tenses or expressions, such as the Present Continuous tense or be going to.

Appendix IV

UNIT 5

Present Perfect Simple

FORM

	subject	auxiliary verb	main verb
+	I / You / We / They	have	played	football.
	He / She	has	visited	Rome.
-	I / You / We / They	haven't	won	the 200 m. race.
	He / She	hasn't	seen	ET.
?	Have	you / we / they	finished?
	Has	he / she	done	it?

USE
We use the Present Perfect Simple tense to talk about past activities, which we are not interested in when they happened. We only want to know if they happened.

Examples
I have seen ET.
He has lived in Paris.
Have you visited Rome?
They have never broken a world record.

NOTE: If we are interested in When an action happened we use Simple Past tense.

Example: Ian Thorpe won the 400 m freestyle in 2004 Athens Olympics.

Grammar

GRAMMAR

UNIT 6

Conditional Sentences

FORM

	IF-clause	Result clause
Type 1	Simple Present tense	will, can, must, + bare infinitive or imperative
Type 2	Simple Past tense	would + bare infinitive

USE
We use Type 1 Conditional Sentences to show that something is possible to happen in the
present or future.

We use Type 2 Conditional Sentences to show that something is very unlikely to happen in
the present or future.

This kind of sentences often expresses a wish or advice.

EXAMPLES

Type 1

If you choose to attend this excellent musical, you will learn the importance of
personal safety, proper diet, and good health.
If you like Greek folk music, register for this event.
If you want to learn about other cultures, you can attend the dances from Peru.

Type 2

If I won a lot of money, I would (I'd) buy a lot of CD's.
If I were you, I'd pay back all the money I owe.

NOTE: When we use Type 2 Conditional we prefer to use were instead of was.

Appendix IV

UNIT 7

Past Continuous

FORM

+	I / he / she	was		watching	TV.
	You	were		working	hard.
-	I / he / she	was	not	helping	Mary.
	We	were	not	joking.
?	Was	he / she		studying	Maths?
	Were	you / they		playing	football?

USE
The Past Continuous tense expresses an action that happened at a particular moment in the past and it continued for some time.

Examples
I was doing my homework at 6.00 in the evening.
They were not playing football at 9am this morning.
What were you doing at 10pm last night?
Tony went home early because it was snowing.

Past Continuous + Simple Past

USE

We often use the Past Continuous tense with the Simple Past tense. We use the Past Continuous
tense to express a long action. And we use the Simple Past tense to express a short action that
happens in the middle of the long action. We can join the two ideas with when or while.

We use:
• when + short action (Simple Past tense)
• while + long action (Past Continuous tense)

Examples

	I was watching TV	when	the telephone rang.
When	the telephone rang		I was watching TV.
	The telephone rang	while	I was watching TV.
While	I was watching TV		the telephone rang.

Grammar

GRAMMAR

Used to...

FORM

In Ancient Greece, people	used to	wear	linen clothes in summer.
When I was fifteen I	used to	listen to	rock music.

USE
We use used to + infinitive to talk about a past state that is not true now or about an old habit that has now stopped.

REMEMBER
We can use either used to… or Past Simple to talk about a past state or habit that is no longer
true, but we can only use Past Simple to talk about things we did at a specific time in the past.

Asking for and giving directions / information

When we ask for directions / information we use the following	When we give directions / information we use the following
Excuse me, how can I go/ get to… Can/could you tell me where… is, please? Can/Could you show me the way to…? What time…? How much…, please?	Go up/down… street until you get to… Go straight… Take the bus/ train to… Turn right/left… It's on the corner of… Take the first/second turning… It is near/opposite/behind/in front of/between…

Appendix IV

UNIT 8

Tag Questions; Relative Pronouns

FORM

+ Positive statement,	- negative tag?
Snow is white,	isn't it?
- Negative statement,	+ positive tag?
You don't like me,	do you?

Some special cases:

I am right, aren't I?	aren't I (not amn't I)
You have to go, don't you?	you (do) have to go...

USE

A tag question is a statement followed by a mini-question. The whole sentence is a "tag question",
and the mini-question at the end is called a "question tag".

We use tag questions at the end of statements to ask for confirmation. They mean something like:
"Am I right?" or "Do you agree?" They are very common in English.

EXAMPLES

You have a sister, don't you?
You don't know the answer, do you?
He went to India last year, didn't he?
You can play tennis, can't you?

Grammar

GRAMMAR

Relative Pronouns

FORM

relative pronoun	use	example
who	subject or object pronoun for people	I told you about the girl who lives next door.
which	subject or object pronoun for animals and things	Do you see the dog which is lying in the garden?
which	referring to a whole sentence	He couldn't swim which surprised me.
whose	possession for people animals and things	Do you know the boy whose mother is a teacher?
that	subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in defining relative clauses (who or which are also possible)	I like the dress that Anna is wearing.

relative adverb	meaning	use	example
when	in/on which	refers to a time expression	the day when we met him
where	in/at which	refers to a place	the place where we met him
why	for which	refers to a reason	the reason why we met him

USE
We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without starting another
sentence.

EXAMPLES

The boys lived in a house which was next to the sea.
I don't care where she lives.
The thing that annoys her is his laziness

	Appendix IV
UNIT 9 Wish + Past FORM When we want to express a desire for something to happen or to exist, we use the verb wish + a past simple form of a verb.
USE We use wish + past simple to express that we want a situation in the present (or future) to be different. EXAMPLES I wish I spoke Italian. (I don't speak Italian)
Wish + Would We use wish + sb or sth + would + bare infinitive to express impatience, annoyance or dissatisfaction with a present action or situation.
EXAMPLES I wish it would stop raining I wish the children would stop making so much noise
Grammar

GRAMMAR

UNIT 10

Passive Voice - Simple Present Tense

FORM

We form the Simple Present Passive with verb to be in the right form and the Past participle of
the main verb.

Simple Present of verb ‘to be'	past participle of main verb
↓	↓
am is are	used/ washed/ finished/ written/ done etc.

USE

We use the Passive Voice when we are more interested in the action than in who is responsible for it (agent). When we want to mention who does the action the word by comes before it. We also use Passive Voice in notices and signs.

EXAMPLES

The young Bond is presented as a tall and scruffy teenager.
The young Bond books are written by Charlie Higson.
Smoking is forbidden.
Tickets are sold out.

Appendix IV

Vocabulary

unit one		unit two		unit three
attractive avocado beads berries boil collect companies contact control cover destroy disgusted drive out fascinated feathers foreign grapefruit habitual hut insects leaves light loincloth mud natural habitat	necklace nuts pollution pollution raise money recycle recycle role sequence slash and burn species straight support threatened tough transport tropical use vegetation weapons wear	brave charity childhood citizen comfort composer deeds desperate discover earthquake emperor famous feed freedom gentle interests kind	lecture lonely make a decision make a difference make a promise make an impression make time marvellous permission pet play playwright radioactivity respects save slave weightlifter	abroad ads advertisement assistant brand buttons chart compact disc companion comparative copy cursor desires discount document drive exceptions expensive experience explanation fame faulty floppy disc gadgets guarantee guilt	humour incredible ink cartridges international jargon jingles keyboard least location log onto memory model multimedia persuasion portable predict queue refund salesperson situation superlative valuable value volume

unit four			unit five
admission apathetic behaviour bite braided breath clench communicator course curious decoration distance dreams embarrassment emotions facial expression fold frown	gaze gestures glare hairstyle injection jealousy mental illness mirror municipality nightmare nod object ornaments outfit pay attention peep pleasant point	point of view prediction pretty shrug shy signs squeeze squint suit sweatshirt take a peep teenagers tools tracksuit unbelievable warrior wrist band	a wide range admission all the best artifacts bus routes civilization coins collection dazzling destination displays documents dye exhibits	for ages fossils in advance jewelry knowledge leaflet minerals objects on display on show passport souvenirs treasure works of art

Vocabulary

unit six

unit seven

unit eight

a lift
ahead
backseat driver
best suited
don't look a gift
horse in the
mouth
drive someone
crazy
engineer
hit the road
hold your horses
inventor
levitation
miss the boat
plain sailing
plastic kit
population
potential
public transport
puncture
put the cart
before the horse
river bank
rock the boat
room
route
sailing
sideways
take for a ride
the end of the
road
transport
treading water
wheel

aim
bakery
bill
bins
breeze
candle holder
cans
cardboard
conditions
container
dawn
decompose
dizzy
ecoart
environment
files
fines
floods
fluoride
habits

junk
laziness
litter
magazines
mess
mice
on-the-spot
packets of
crisps
pieces of wood
rubbish
smog
toothpaste
town council
traffic cones
tub
tubes of
toothpaste
tyres
waste
wrapping

according to
brain
cargo
combine
compass
discover
donation
doorknob
emigrants
experiment
fridge
immigrants
instinct
intervals
invent
item
magnet
magnetic fields
magnetism
migrate

natural disaster
needle
nickname
north
pieces
products
roller coaster
ropes
sailors
separate
surface
transfer
volunteer
waves
wind

unit nine
aggressive appearance arrogant attention be in your shoes beholder blouse cloak confident curly hair dressed to kill gear gelled hair good-looking heel	hipster jeans image immature invisible items of clothing knee-length leggings mature outfit pull up your socks quality round-neck scarf smart spiked hair	spotlight spots stereotype success sweat shirt talk through your hat tie tights trendy waist wear your heart on your sleeve wig

unit ten
belt clay constructions cotton courier grapes instruments	leather material out of stock package parachutes parts petrol	pine porcelain relevant silk steam stone string	thread walkie-talkie weapons wheat wool